Diarrhea has been a major cause of morbidity, hospitalization, and loss of duty days for military personnel for centuries. In fact, diarrheal illness is the most common medical problem for U.S. troops during operational deployment. Soldiers are especially prone to diarrhea because of travel, consumption of locally procured foods (including raw vegetables and poorly-cooked meat products) and the use of nonpotable water, or ice. High rates of occurrence continue to be reported in soldiers deployed to recent conflicts. Furthermore, high morbidity rates from enteric disease have been reported by other military forces in areas of current combat operations: up to 53%-69% of Soviet troops had major gastrointestinal infections during the Afghanistan war, and up to 69% of British troops and 36% of Australian troops reported diarrhea in Iraq during Operation Safe Haven in 1991.
The region of sub-Saharan Africa, where the proposed study would be conducted, is uniquely positioned for anti-diarrheal research that can offer answers to problems of the civilian population, displaced persons and deployed soldiers or workers in remote areas. Diarrheal disease is the 4th leading cause of out-patient morbidity in Kenya, accounting for almost 5% of all new outpatient cases, with a higher prevalence in Nyanza Province - 5.4% to 7.1% of total new cases. Kisumu lies in the Nyanza Province in western Kenya, bordering Lake Victoria and populated by the Luo ethnic group. Nyanza is one of Kenya's most impoverished provinces with one of the nation's lowest immunization rates, highest infant mortality and highest prevalence of HIV (35% among adults 15-49 years old in 2000, as compared to 14% nationally). Malnutrition is common; endemic diseases include malaria, leishmaniasis, tuberculosis and schistosomiasis.
Scientists from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have reported on the species of bacterial pathogens isolated from diarrhea patients in the Kisumu area: the bacterial isolates were similar to those reported in U.S. soldiers (44% Shigella; 30% Campylobacter; 14% Salmonella). However, most of the isolates (51%) were not susceptible to their antimicrobial treatment. The study by Brooks et al. (2003), reported that more than 90% of the isolates (excluding Campylobacter) were resistant to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and tetracycline, and more than 80% were resistant to ampicillin.
If this alarming trend persists, and drug-resistant bacteria are identified in civilian populations, gains in disease control strategies already deployed will not be achieved, and in case of deployed members of the military or workforce, mission-impact may be severely compromised. Thus, we propose that the Kombewa Clinical Research Center (KCRC), located outside of Kisumu, would allow for testing of a novel anti-diarrheal treatment, specifically dietary zinc (Zn), in antibiotic-resistant bacteria with potential benefits to not only the deployed U.S. military and western Kenyan populations, but also other populations in Africa. Populations living in the Kombewa area will serve as potential study volunteers because of the high prevalence of antibiotic-resistant diarrhea in adults in this region.
This study will build upon the proven concept that Zn-supplementation, as an adjunct to oral rehydration, is highly protective against diarrhea in children. The results are expected to provide the scientific basis and common pathway for development of a commercially viable, multivalent, food-based, anti-diarrheal supplement for vulnerable populations such as troops prior to deployment, deprived and displaced persons. Based on a successful outcome, we would expect to attract commercial support for a final micronutrient formulation suitable for field use and expanded efficacy evaluation in pivotal studies for support of licensure. An anti-diarrheal product for adults will fill an important military, refugee population need and have dual use in the civilian sector.
The benefits of maintaining adequate zinc status in populations in tropical areas and more so displaced populations such refugees and deployed soldiers are probably not limited to the disease states discussed here. Roles for Zn have been described for other important issues facing the soldier and populations in the tropics especially children, including cutaneous leishmaniasis, malaria, pneumonia, wound healing, cognitive function and behavior, and night vision. Because of these important roles for Zn in maintaining health and fighting disease, maintaining adequate Zn levels and supplementing with Zn in some cases, should be considered when formulating diets for resource deprived populations, displaced people and the modern deployed soldiers.
The primary objective of the study is to determine the incidence of diarrhea in zinc vs. placebo-supplemented adults; secondary objectives include: determining the time to diarrhea onset in both groups; determining the duration of each diarrhea episode in both groups; and determining the number of loose stools per day per episode of diarrhea in both groups. Tertiary objectives include determining the nutritional status of the study population by use of anthropometric measurements and micronutrient assays; determining the incidence of malaria in zinc vs. placebo-supplemented adults; and determining if HIV infection is a confounding factor in the outcome of diarrhea incidences following zinc supplementation in adults.
Hypotheses
1. There is no statistically significant difference in the incidence of diarrhea in adults when given Zn supplementation as compared to placebo over a three month period. We will determine the incidence of diarrhea in both the Zn and placebo arms of the study. This will be accomplished from self-reported incidence of volunteers collected by health workers at the field stations or at the subject's home.
2. The time to diarrhea onset will not be significantly different in the Zn supplemented study arm as compared to the placebo study arm. We will determine the number of days from the study start (this will be after a two week period of volunteers receiving either Zn supplements or placebo) until onset of diarrhea in both the Zn and placebo arms of the study. This will be accomplished from self-reported data of volunteers collected by health workers at the field stations or at the subject's home.
3. The duration of each diarrhea episode will not be significantly different in the Zn-supplemented study arm as compared to the placebo study arm. We will determine the number of days of each diarrhea episode in both the Zn and placebo arms of the study. This will be accomplished from self-reported data of volunteers collected by health workers at the field stations or at the subject's home.
4. The number of loose stools per day per episode of diarrhea will not be significantly different in the Zn-supplemented study arm as compared to the placebo study arm. We will determine the number of number of loose stools per day per episode of diarrhea in both the Zn and placebo arms of the study. This will be accomplished from self-reported data of volunteers collected by health workers at the field stations or at the subject's home.
5. The incidence of malaria will not be significantly different in Zn vs. placebo-supplemented adults. We will determine the incidence of malaria in both the Zn and placebo arms of the study. This will be accomplished using the results from the malaria blood smears collected during the study.
