Reducing Cardiac-surgery Associated Acute Kidney Injury Occurence by Administering Angiotensin II

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is defined by changes in serum creatinine and/or urine output, according to the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) criteria. In cardiac surgical patients, the AKI rate is up to 30%, with 1-2% of the patients requiring renal replacement therapy (RRT). Cardiac-surgery associated AKI (CSA-AKI) is associated with increased short- and long-term morbidity and mortality as well as increased hospital costs. Shock after cardiac surgery is also associated with increased mortality. In the context of cardiac surgery with the use of the cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB), sympathetic nervous system activation and cardiovascular instability are common sequelae. Vasoplegic syndrome is a form of distributive shock that is characterized by low arterial pressure, reduced systemic vascular resistance, and normal or elevated cardiac output. It occurs in 5 to 25% of the patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Patients with vasoplegic shock are at higher risk of organ failure, including AKI, and show increased mortality rates and longer hospital length of stays. Currently, norepinephrine is the established first-line vasopressor for the treatment of vasoplegic shock, but all vasopressors have adverse effects, including myocardial ischemia and arrhythmias. Moreover, in vasoplegic situations, vascular smooth muscle cells may become unresponsive to vasopressors. The underlying mechanisms are complex and include adrenoceptor desensitization, increased nitric oxide (NO) synthesis, activation of adenosine triphosphate-sensitive K+ channels, and vasopressin and corticosteroid deficiency. Physiologically, the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is a hormone system that plays a central role in regulating blood pressure and fluid balance, glomerular filtration rate, and electrolyte levels. Renin, a proteolytic enzyme released by juxtaglomerular cells in response to hypotension, decreases sodium delivery to the distal tubule, activates the sympathetic nervous system, and cleaves angiotensinogen to angiotensin I which is a precursor of the vasoactive angiotensin II. RAAS is regulated by a biofeedback loop. Angiotensin II generation inhibits renin release, whereas renin levels increase when there is insufficient activation of the angiotensin II type 1 receptor. Administration of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) and angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARB) and reduced angiotensin II generation cause a corresponding increase in renin levels. Despite numerous clinical trials using several interventions, a reliable means to prevent AKI remains elusive. Clinical trials focusing on surgical patients suggest that angiotensin II is a potent vasopressor. However, no human data exist whether the application of angiotensin II as a primary vasopressor reduces the occurrence of AKI in patients undergoing cardiac surgery.